The global airline alliances have been a dominant feature of the aviation landscape for over 15 years, formed in the "era of hyper-competition" characterized by growing competition for resources. Airlines face multiple pressures, including high capital replacement costs, disruptive low-cost business models, regulatory change, and the challenges and opportunities posed by rapidly evolving technology. The era of monopolies has given way to the era of continental competition, and now we are in the era of hyper-competition. The abundant and cheap supply of oil, the scarcity and high prices of aircraft wealth and mobility, and the dominance of geo-economic zones have all contributed to the growth of air traffic and ownership rights. Next-generation long-haul jets are enabling airlines to tap smaller markets, and airport traffic has grown from 2% to 30% of the world population. The "jet set" era has given way to the "mass transportation" era, and now we are in the "hybrid and fragmented clients" era. The ASEAN has opened skies, and global open skies have led to national airlines, bilateral agreements, and traffic rights down to airport to airport level. The leading full-service airlines have been quick to secure membership of one of the three mainstream global alliances, which have become a dominant feature of the aviation landscape.
